The USDA National Organic Farming Handbook
November 2015
National Organic Farming Handbook
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Title 190 – National Organic Farming Handbook
November 2015
Cover photos: Top photo: organic cow-calf operation in Iowa; bottom left: NRCS planner and
producer walking by organic soybeans; bottom right: organic tomatoes. Photos by Ron Nichols,
USDA NRCS.
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Acknowledgments
The NRCS Organic Farming Handbook was developed to support NRCS conservation planners and
other agricultural professionals as they work with organic producers. The handbook describes organic
systems and identifies key resources to guide conservation planning and implementation on organic farms.
Producers and other audiences may also find the handbook useful, particularly the resources listed in
various sections.
This handbook was developed by a team comprised of NRCS staff and partner organizations from across the
country and from a range of disciplines.
Coordinator for the handbook was Ben Bowell, Organic Education Specialist, Oregon Tilth, Oregon.
Contact Lindsay Haines (lindsay.haines@wdc.usda.gov) for comments or suggested revisions to this
handbook.
NRCS Team Members
Glen Abney, Area Resource Conservationist, Kentucky
Thomas Akin, Conservation Agronomist, Massachusetts
Alice Begin, Resource Conservationist, Maine
Lindsay Haines, Conservation Program Specialist, National Headquarters
James Howard, District Conservationist, California
David Lamm, National Soil Health Team Leader, East National Technology Support Center
Pat Murphy, State Resource Conservationist, Wisconsin
Todd Peplin, Farm Bill Specialist, Oregon
Susan Samson-Liebig, Soil Quality Specialist, North Dakota
Ruth Shaffer, Water Quality Specialist, Michigan
Cheryl Simmons, Natural Resources Specialist, Central National Technology Support Center
Ben Smallwood, Conservation Specialist, National Headquarters
Sudie Thomas, Wildlife Biologist, South Carolina
Pedro Torres, Tribal Liaison, California
Kalven Trice, Senior Economist, National Headquarters
Rafael Vega, District Conservationist, Indiana
Partner Team Members
Lillian “Ebonie” Alexander, Executive Director, Black Family Land Trust, North Carolina
Keith Baldwin, Farm Services Coordinator, Carolina Farm Stewardship Association, North Carolina
Jo Ann Baumgartner, Director, Wild Farm Alliance, California
Harriet Behar, Organic Specialist, Midwest Organic & Sustainable Education Service, Wisconsin
Ben Bowell, Organic Education Specialist, Oregon Tilth, Oregon
Sarah Brown, Education Director, Oregon Tilth, Oregon
Traci Bruckner, Senior Associate for Agriculture and Conservation Policy, Center for Rural Affairs,
Nebraska
Rex Dufour, Manager, California Office, National Center for Appropriate Technology, California
Greg Fogel, Senior Policy Specialist, National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, District of Columbia
Jennifer Miller, Director, Healthy Food and Farms Program, Northwest Center for Alternative to
Pesticides, Idaho
Jose Perez, Florida Organic Growers, Florida
Jeff Schahczenski, Program Specialist, National Center for Appropriate Technology, Montana
Mark Schonbeck, Newsletter Editor and Policy Liaison, Virginia Biological Farming Association, Virginia
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Table of Contents
A. Overview of Organic Agriculture…………………………………………………………………..A-1
1. Organic Farming System Principles………………………………………………………………………………… A-3
2. Resource Conservation Needs, Opportunities, and Challenges in Organic Agriculture……….. A-3
B. National Organic Program (NOP)………………………………………………………………….B-1
1. USDA Organic Regulations and Roles……………………………………………………………………………… B-1
2. Overview of Organic Certification Process Through NOP…………………………………………………. B-4
C. Conservation Planning With Existing Organic/Transitional Producers……..C-1
1. Nine Steps of Conservation Planning in Organic Systems………………………………………………… C-1
2. Technical Service Providers……………………………………………………………………………………………. C-3
3. CAP Supporting Organic Transition (CAP 138)……………………………………………………………….. C-4
4. Conservation Compliance……………………………………………………………………………………………….. C-4
D. Integral Conservation Activities for Organic Production Systems……………. D-1
1. Nutrient Management……………………………………………………………………………………………………. D-3
2. Cover Crops…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… D-4
3. Compost………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… D-6
4. Crop rotations……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. D-6
5. Tillage and Residue Management…………………………………………………………………………………… D-7
6. Integrated Pest Management………………………………………………………………………………………….. D-8
7. Buffers and Natural Areas……………………………………………………………………………………………. D-10
8. Organic Grazing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… D-12
9. Livestock Living Conditions, Facilities, and Structures…………………………………………………… D-13
Appendix 1
USDA Organic Regulatory Production Requirements Related to Resource Conservation……App1-1
Appendix 2
Additional Resources……………………………………………………………………………………………………. App2-1
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A. Overview of Organic Agriculture
1. Organic Farming System Principles
Organic farming systems reflect several fundamental principles that early innovators established through
careful observation of soils, crops, livestock, and life processes in natural and agricultural systems.
Practitioners have refined, updated, and expressed these principles in different ways over the past 75
years, yet the foundational principles of organic agriculture remain relatively constant.1 In addition to over
12,000 USDA-certified organic producers2, many other U.S. producers implement “sustainable,” “ecological,”
“biological,” or “natural” methods derived from these same principles. While many producers may follow
similar principals, all certified organic producers must comply with the USDA’s Agricultural Marketing
Service (AMS) National Organic Program (NOP) regulations – commonly known as the USDA organic
regulations. Only those producers following the USDA organic regulations may market their products as
organic.
Use Natural Materials
In general, the USDA organic regulations allow the use of natural fertilizers and materials, and exclude
synthetic substances. However, organic systems are more complex than this general standard and include
broader principles described below. In the words of author and sustainable farming advocate Wendell Berry,
“An organic farm, properly speaking, is not one that uses certain methods and substances and avoids
others; it is a farm whose structure is formed in imitation of the structure of a natural system that has the
integrity, the independence and the benign dependence of an organism.”3
Protect the Health of the Soil and Natural Resources
Organic practitioners and researchers emphasize healthy, living, nutritionally balanced soil as the
foundation of crop, livestock, and human health, and of sustainable and successful farming.4 To maintain
healthy soil, organic farmers control erosion, feed and protect the soil life, and replenish organic matter as
well as plant nutrients. They adopt diverse crop rotations to balance nutrient demands on the soil, protect
and enhance soil life, and control erosion by maintaining good tilth, planting cover crops, and adopting other
conservation practices. More recently, research findings on the benefits of an active and diverse soil food
web have refined this principle and established its importance throughout modern agriculture.
Early leaders of the organic farming movement emphasized that, over the long term, successful farming
depends on the health of all natural resources on the farm and in its surroundings. All farming inevitably
alters the natural condition of soil and other resources within production areas to some degree, often with
some decrease in biodiversity. To sustain biodiversity, organic farmers strive to protect water, wildlife,
native plant communities, and other resources from agricultural impacts. In organic crop and livestock
production pest, weed, and disease management emphasize cultural and preventative practices before the
use of approved organic crop protection products. Producers support biodiversity by providing habitat for
wildlife, pollinators and other organisms in cultivated and uncultivated areas of the farming system.
1
Schonbeck, Mark W. 2014. A Brief History and Philosophy of Organic Farming. Handout (2 pp) originally developed and used for SARE PDP
agricultural professional trainings offered by Southern Sustainable Agriculture Working Group, 2011 – 2013; revised June 2014.
2
USDA National Organic Program. This does not include all certified operations (i.e. handling operations). Does not include farms exempt from
certification. http://apps.ams.usda.gov/nop/.
3
Berry, Wendell. 1981. The Gift of Good Land: Further Essays Cultural and Agricultural. San Francisco: North Point, 1981.
4
Howard, Sir Albert. 1947. The Soil and Health: a Study of Organic Agriculture. Republished with a foreword by Wendell Berry in 2006,
University Press of Kentucky, 307 pp.
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Early leaders of the organic farming movement emphasized that, over the long term, successful farming
depends on the health of all natural resources on the farm and in its surroundings. All farming inevitably
alters the natural condition of soil and other resources within production areas to some degree, often with
some decrease in biodiversity. To sustain biodiversity, organic farmers strive to protect water, wildlife,
native plant communities, and other resources from agricultural impacts. In organic crop and livestock
production, pest, weed, and disease management emphasize cultural and preventative practices before the
use of approved organic crop protection products. Producers support biodiversity by providing habitat for
wildlife, pollinators, and other organisms in cultivated and uncultivated areas of the farming system.
Simulate Nature in Farming Practices
Organic producers strive to develop farming systems that mimic nature and utilize natural processes and
materials to provide for crop and livestock nutrition, manage pests and weeds, and attain production goals,
while conserving the biological diversity on which their farm depends.
Crop and nutrient management
Living plants in a natural ecosystem, such as a forest or prairie, derive essential nutrients from the
breakdown of plant and animal residues that fall on or are deposited into the soil. As soil organisms
decompose organic residues, they release plant-available nutrients to support the next season’s growth, and
form humus that sustains soil quality. Mimicking this natural cycle, producers replenish soil organic matter
and nutrients by returning animal and green manures, crop residues, and other organic sources to the soil,
thereby maintaining soil fertility and crop yields. These practices feed the soil, and the soil feeds the crop.
When crops need additional nutrients, organic producers choose plant, animal, and natural mineral-based
fertilizers, most of which release nutrients gradually through the action of soil organisms. Synthetic
fertilizers are prohibited in organic production systems.
Figure 1 Examining organically managing soil under
alfalfa
Pest management
In natural ecosystems, insects, rodents, and
other herbivorous organisms feed on vegetation;
however, predators and parasites feed on the
herbivores, thus helping to limit damage to the
plant community. Native plants can fall prey to
pathogenic fungi and other microorganisms, but
most soil microorganisms play important roles in
plant vigor, including disease suppression. The
web of relationships among diverse organisms
in a healthy, mature forest or prairie creates
a balance that generally controls a particular
pest from destroying other species. Organic
farmers simulate and utilize these natural checks
and balances to limit crop damage from pests.
Producers establish beneficial habitat plantings
to harbor predators of crop pests, build soil health
to suppress soil-borne pathogens, diversify crop
rotations to disrupt pest cycles, and plant cover
crops to suppress weeds.
Resource cycling
Some organic proponents focus on cycling of
resources within the farm and minimizing
dependence on off-farm inputs. Crop rotations
that include cover crops and a mix of deep and
shallow-rooted crops may enhance nutrient and
water utilization and cycling within the soil
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profile. Practices that increase soil organic matter and structure, and hence water and nutrient retention,
further improve resource cycling and reduce dependence on off-farm inputs. Integration of crop and
livestock production can enhance nutrient cycling, as livestock consume on-farm forages and crop residues,
and provide nutrient-rich manure for subsequent crop production.
Biodiversity
Organic systems attempt to mirror nature by maintaining biodiversity on the farm. Producers diversify
and rotate crops, and plant field edges with flowering plants to support pollinators and other beneficial
organisms. Fields may include hedge and tree rows of varied species, providing wildlife habitat and
structural biodiversity above and below ground. Wildlife corridors and wildlife-friendly fences maintain
connectivity for wide-ranging wildlife such as deer and predators.
Tillage and weed management
Without access to many herbicides, organic producers often use tillage in annual crop production as a tool
to manage weeds and cover crops without herbicides. Recent advances in organic no-till and conservationtillage systems, such as the roller-crimper, and the use of flame weeders and mulches, have helped organic
producers reduce the intensity of soil disturbance in annual crop rotations. In addition, planting “subsoiling”
cover crops (deep-rooted plants that can break up a hard pan in the soil) such as tillage radish, sorghumsudangrass hybrids, and clovers allow producers to accomplish biologically what has traditionally been done
with mechanical subsoilers and other deep tillage implements. While it is recognized that tillage to control
weeds reduces soil organic carbon, the rotation, cover crop, and manure management practices employed
generally increase soil carbon levels in organic production systems.
Adapt to Local Conditions
Selection of crop varieties and crop seed for organic production reflects the organic principles of working with
nature (i.e., plant what will grow well locally in an organic system). Organic farmers seek out and plant
varieties that tolerate locally prevalent pests and diseases with minimum intervention, and that perform
well in the farm’s climate and soils. Many prefer locally or regionally produced seed, which may show
enhanced adaptation to local conditions.
2. Resource Conservation Needs, Opportunities, and Challenges in Organic Agriculture
As described below, the NOP’s definition of organic production codifies the organic movement’s historical
emphasis on ecologically sound practices and resource conservation: organic production is a system managed
to “foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.” To achieve these
objectives, organic producers commonly implement a number of conservation practices that align well
with NRCS conservation activities. For example, the 2008 USDA Organic Production Survey identified
frequently used conservation practices such as using green manures and animal manures as nutrient
sources (65 percent of respondents), buffer strips (58 percent), water management practices (51 percent), notill or minimum-till (38 percent), beneficial insect habitat (32 percent), and rotational grazing (21 percent).
As the organic farming sector continues to expand in the United States, both new and established organic
farmers will seek NRCS assistance to clarify and meet their resource stewardship goals. The high diversity
and emphasis on specialty crops characteristic of many organic farms create both opportunities and
challenges for the conservation professional.
Environmental Benefits of Organic Farming Systems
While the environmental benefits vary by farm, in general organic systems can benefit environmental
quality in several ways:
• Soil.—Soil-building practices such as crop rotations, cover crops, organic fertilizers, residue
management, and minimum tillage are central to organic practices. These practices replenish soil
organic matter, feed soil life, reduce erosion, improve soil structure, and enhance nutrient cycling and
water retention.
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• Water.—Well-managed organic systems rely mainly on slow-release forms of nutrients, which reduce
the risk of nutrient runoff and leaching. Enhanced soil structure, water infiltration, and better
nutrient retention also reduce the risk of water quality impairment.
• Air and Climate Change.—Organic farming practices increase the return of carbon to the soil, thus
removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and mitigating global warming.
• Biodiversity.—Organic systems enhance biodiversity at several levels. A variety of seeds and breeds
are preferred for their greater resistance to diseases, climate, and pests. Producers employ diverse
combinations and rotations of plants and animals. The maintenance and planting of natural areas
within and around organic fields and the minimal use of synthetic inputs create suitable habitats for
wildlife.5
Environmental Challenges of Organic Farming Systems
Organic farming systems also present some distinct environmental challenges:
• Nutrients.—Organic nutrient sources release slowly, and it is difficult to calibrate application rates for
optimum production. A reliance on manure and compost to provide adequate nitrogen (N) for organic
crops can lead to nutrient imbalances, especially a buildup of excessive soil phosphorus (P). Inadequate
crop-available N, especially in early spring when the soil is cool, is a common production constraint for
organic farms. Legume cover crops can address this constraint without adding P or other nutrients.
• Tillage.—Without broad-spectrum herbicides, organic annual crop production is more reliant on
tillage and cultivation for weed management and seedbed preparation. This can lead to soil erosion,
compaction, and organic matter loss. Integrated, ecological weed management strategies, including
cover crops and crop rotation, can reduce reliance on cultivation, and additions of organic matter to the
soil can mitigate negative impacts of tillage. Awareness of this issue has led an increasing number of
organic farmers to implement flame weeding, mulches, reduced-till, and sometimes no-till systems.
• Residues.—Some specialty crop rotations may not provide sufficient crop residues to replenish soil
organic carbon or control erosion. Farmers producing high-value crops on limited acreage may find it
difficult to implement a crop rotation with substantial residue return because of financial or logistical
constraints.
• Transition.—The required 3 years free of NOP-prohibited materials can create an incentive for a
farmer to break sod if existing cropland has had recent use of NOP-prohibited materials, while areas in
sod have not (see appendix 2 of this handbook, for information about converting Conservation Reserve
Program (CRP) land to production). Breaking sod located on sloping land, highly erodible land (HEL),
or high conservation value (HCV) land, such as native grassland or prairie, especially raises concerns
about resource degradation.
Resources
Describing Organic Agricultural Production in Virginia: Results of the 2004 Farm Survey (Virginia Tech
Rural Economic Analysis Program) http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/agsvpturp/14844.htm.
USDA 2008 Organic Production Survey:
http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/Organics/.
5
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “What are the environmental benefits of organic agriculture.”
http://www.fao.org/organicag/oa-faq/oa-faq6/en/.
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B. National Organic Program (NOP)
1. USDA Organic Regulations and Roles
Establishment of the NOP
Consumer demand for assurances regarding products marketed as organic led to the establishment of
organic certification programs in the 1970s. These programs were administered by private nonprofit
organizations and State departments of agriculture, which developed rules or standards for organic
production and handling. Although certification programs shared a common theme of allowing natural
materials and methods and largely excluding synthetics, differences among programs caused confusion for
producers and consumers. A widely recognized need for a consistent nationwide definition and standards for
organic agriculture led to the establishment of the USDA’s Organic Program. In addition to regulations, the
NOP Handbook provides guidance and instructions to help operations comply with the regulations.
Organic Food Production Act of 1990
Part of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (1990 Farm Bill), the Organic Food
Production Act created the NOP within the USDA AMS. After considerable public input, the USDA
published a final rule in December 2000. The rule went into effect in April 2001, and was fully implemented
in October 2002 after a waiting period to allow time for producers to comply with the new regulations.
Since October 2002, the word organic is regulated and all agricultural products labeled organic must be
in compliance with USDA organic regulations. Operations with $5,000 or more in gross sales of organic
products must be certified.6
According to the 2008 USDA Organic Production Survey, 10,903 USDA-certified organic farms and 3,637
exempt organic farms (annual gross sales <$5,000) managed 4.1 million acres and generated $3.16 billion
in annual gross sales. In that survey, 37 percent of organic farmers planned to increase organic production,
41 percent planned to maintain current levels, only 8 percent planned to reduce or discontinue organic
production, and 14 percent were undecided. As of 2014, the number of USDA-certified organic producers
had increased to approximately 12,000.7
NOP Requirements and Conservation
Organic producers and conservation professionals share a commitment to resource protection and
environmental stewardship. USDA organic regulations and NRCS technical and program implementation
guidelines reflect these commonly shared principles. Organic producers, not NRCS staff, are responsible
for ensuring they comply with organic regulations. However, numerous NRCS conservation practices can
help producers meet USDA organic regulations. Section D of this handbook for organic production systems
includes a table that lists Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) and Environmental Quality Incentive
Program (EQIP) practices that can help producers meet USDA organic regulations.
For reference, the full USDA National Organic Program Regulations (7 CFR part 205) can be viewed at
http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=3f34f4c22f9aa8e6d9864cc2683cea02&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/
Title07/7cfr205_main_02.tpl.
It provides specific definitions and information for implementing the organic program. Selected excerpts
from the USDA organic regulations are provided in appendix 1 of this handbook.
Guidance and Instruction
The NOP periodically publishes guidance and instructions on the interpretation of standards to help certified
operations comply with regulations. For example, the NOP has published guidance on the regulation
covering the use of seeds and planting stock in organic production. The guidance describes practices for
certified operations to demonstrate their efforts to procure all organic seeds; clarifies “equivalent variety”;
and describes the form, quality, or quantity criteria that need to be met before organic seeds or planting
6
7
Organic Trade Association. “US Organic Standards” http://ota.com/.
USDA National Organic Program. This does not include all certified operations (i.e,. handling operations). http://apps.ams.usda.gov/nop/.
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stock for a desired crop or variety can be considered commercially unavailable. Other guidance includes
details on recordkeeping procedures and pesticide testing.
New guidance is first published in draft form for public comment. After reviewing all public comments, NOP
publishes finalized guidance in the NOP Handbook and in the Federal Register.8
National Organic Standards Board
The Organic Foods Production Act established a 15-member National Organic Standards Board (NOSB).
Members are appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture to serve a 5-year term. The NOSB must represent
the organic community as follows:
• Four farmers or growers
• Three environmentalists or resource conservationists
• Three consumer or public interest advocates
• Two handlers or processors
• One retailer
• One scientist (toxicology, ecology, or biochemistry)
• One USDA-accredited certifying agent
NOSB members also serve on standing subcommittees that develop recommendations for the full NOSB.
Subcommittees include: Compliance, Accreditation, and Certification; Crops; Handling; Livestock;
Materials; and Policy Development.9
NOSB roles
The NOSB’s main roles are to make recommendations about whether a substance should be allowed or
prohibited in organic production or handling, to assist in the development of standards for substances to
be used in organic production, and to advise the Secretary on other aspects of Organic Foods Production
Act (OFPA) implementation. In addition to the authority to make recommendations concerning additions
to the National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances (National List), the NOSB must also review
each substance on the National List every 5 years to confirm that it continues to meet all required criteria.
This is referred to as the “sunset” review. If USDA agrees with the NOSB’s recommendation to remove a
substance, then it may remove the substance from the National List. Changing the National List requires
USDA to complete rulemaking, a process that includes another public comment opportunity. The NOSB
makes recommendations on a wide variety of topics such as unannounced inspections at certified operations
or criteria for commercial availability when searching for organic seeds.10
Accreditation of Organic Certifiers and Organic Certification of Operations
The NOP itself does not certify farms and other operations as organic; rather a USDA-accredited certifying
agent, or certifier, provides the certification. Certifiers, which may be private, State, or foreign entities,
are responsible for certification. To become a certifier, an entity must submit a fee and application which
includes information relevant to the entity’s capacity to conduct organic certification. Once approved,
organizations are accredited for 5 years. An additional onsite assessment is conducted halfway through the
5 years and at the end of that period for entities that renew.11
8
National Organic Program. “NOP Guidance”
http://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/organic/draft-guidance.
9
National Organic Program. “National Organic Standards Board New Member Guide 2013.”
www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/NOP-NOSB-NewMemberGuide.pdf.
10
National Organic Program. “National Organic Standards Board.”
http://www.ams.usda.gov/NOSBHome.
11
National Organic Program. “FAQ: Becoming a Certifying Agent.”
http://www.ams.usda.gov/services/organic-certification/faq-becoming-certifying-agent.
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Most farms and businesses that grow, handle, or process products that are sold as organic must be certified
to verify that they comply with the USDA organic regulations. If an operation’s gross agricultural income
from organic sales does not exceed $5,000 per year, it is considered an “exempt” operation. These operations
do not need to be certified in order to sell, label, or represent products as organic, but they must follow USDA
organic regulations and cannot use the USDA organic seal.
Operations that are interested in certification can work with any certifier to become certified in one or
more of four categories of organic products: crops, livestock, processed products, and wild crops. To become
certified, operations must complete an organic system plan (OSP) that describes their practices and
substances used. An inspector conducts an onsite inspection to determine if the operation complies with
USDA organic regulations. The producer must provide an update annually to maintain organic certification,
and inspections are conducted annually.12
International markets
Several other countries have separate organic standards and labels such as Canada, the European Union,
Japan, Korea, Switzerland, and Taiwan. Through trade agreements, organic products grown in the
United States may be sold in these countries as organic. There are only a few additional regulations that
producers should be aware of if they are interested in these markets; an operation’s certifier can help ensure
compliance with these regulations. For example, Canada requires livestock (except ruminants) be produced
according to specified stocking rates.13
Compliance and Enforcement
To ensure the integrity of the organic standards and use of the term “organic,” USDA enforces the OFPA
and
All Regions
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